Strategic Recommendation for Toyota free essay sample

The growth of emerging markets and their potentials have lured companies all over the world to expand into new markets and get a piece of the benefits . Generally , companies are looking for countries or market that possesses low-risk and high potential markets as a vital source of growth . Nevertheless , this does not mean that these companies have all that it takes to gain such benefit from its undertaking . Most companies generally lack the knowledge and understanding of the new market to perform such an undertaking There are significant differences between the new emerging markets compare to developed ones in the United States or European countries These differences could sometimes be huge obstacles to gain economic benefits from the new markets . However , with the right perspective and the proper treatment , companies can facilitate tremendous amount of growth from the benefits gained from the market Choosing or identifying the right market for business expansion is crucial for getting the full benefit of the emerging market . We will write a custom essay sample on Strategic Recommendation for Toyota or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Afterwards , strategic planning and marketing schemes seem to be the key for successful penetration of the market (Heakal , 2003) These steps are important since business environment contains numerous influential factors this undeniable connection is what made strategic management a dissimilar challenge for each business design . In to cope with such challenge entrepreneurs generally used several analysis tools that will help them discover the competitive advantages of their business and take advantage of them for the improvement of their companies Concerning the analysis of a company s strategy , this will discuss about the strategy of Toyota in dealing with the fierce competition in automotive industry in the world .

The Inter Professional Practice In Social Work Social Work Essay Essays

The Inter Professional Practice In Social Work Social Work Essay Essays The Inter Professional Practice In Social Work Social Work Essay Paper The Inter Professional Practice In Social Work Social Work Essay Paper This essay will sketch and explicate why inter professional collaborative pattern in societal work is of import. It will besides analyze cardinal factors that help or impede effectual inter professional collaborative pattern. It will explicate why it is of import that professionals work together and efficaciously as a squad and the effects that can happen when professionals fail to join forces successfully. There has been a great trade of political and professional force per unit areas for the development of inter professional collaborative pattern. From the late 1990 s onwards there were huge sums of official paperss to advance the importance of collaborative working within the wellness and societal attention sector. The 1998 societal services White Paper Modernising Social Services ( DoH, 1998 ) and The NHS Plan ( 2000 ) devoted full chapters to the topic. It has been argued that inter professional working has advanced farther in relation to services for older people than it has in relation to kids and households. The Green Paper Every Child Matters ( DfES 2003 ) recognised this and one of the chief elements of this paper focused that improved coaction was required so as non to reiterate the tragic events of the Victoria Climbie instance ( this instance will be discussed in farther item later in the essay ) . Government acknowledgment suggests that many societal jobs can non be effica ciously addressed by any given administration moving in isolation from others. That is, when professionals work together efficaciously they provide a better service to the complex demands of the most vulnerable people in society. Inter professional collaborative pattern involves complex interactions between a scope of different professionals and is when professionals work together as a squad to make reciprocally negotiated ends through agreed programs. It is a partnership that can be defined as a formal understanding between the different professions who agree to work together in chase of common ends. Collaborative is defined as seting that partnership into operation or into pattern. It involves the different professions working together and utilizing their ain single accomplishments alternatively of working in opposite waies to run into the demands of peculiar service users. It is suggested that when societal workers and other professions work collaboratively the service user gets a better trade. Willing engagement ( Henneman et al, 1995, cited in Barrett et Al, 2005, p.19 ) and a high degree of motive ( Molyneux, 2001, cited in Barrett et Al, p.19 ) have been stated as critical facets of effectual inter professional coaction. Social workers have certain ethical duties to society that they must follow and this comes in the signifier of The British Association of Social Work ( BASW ) Code of Ethics and the National Occupational Standards for societal workers. The Code of Ethics follow five basic values, Human Dignity and Worth, Social Justice, Service to Humanity, Integrity and Competence whilst the National Occupational Standards outline the criterions of behavior and pattern to which all societal workers should adhere to. Whilst working in coaction with other professionals, societal workers should follow these Codes and Standards to guarantee that the best possible result is achieved for the service user. In the past inter professional collaborative pattern has been hard with many disadvantages and that this has caused jobs between the different professions involved. This has in the yesteryear led to catastrophic calamities as in the instance of Victoria Climbie. Shared answerability is of import for effectual coaction and all professionals should be accountable. Each profession should back up one another, non be seen as ego interested and that no one profession is higher than another. Some of the jobs that can happen are when there is non a logical distribution of power. Unequal power distribution can be oppressive ( Payne, 2000, cited in Barrett et Al, 2005, p.23 ) and can restrict engagement for some group members. Struggles for power are rooted in professional tradition and societal difference. It is believed by some critics of societal work that social workers have frequently been located in scenes where they were considered as subsidiary to other more established professional g roups ( Brewer and Lait, 1980, cited in Wilson et Al, 2008, p.401 ) . Traditionally there have been troubles within the medical profession and Cooke et Al, ( 2001, cited in Barrett et Al, 2005, p.23 ) suggests that general practicians felt threatened by a redistribution of power and had jobs allowing spells of their traditionally held power base . Social work in the yesteryear has been described as a semi profession and similar to nursing and instruction and non comparable to the learned profession of medical specialty or jurisprudence as it does non hold the needed characteristics of those professions ( Freidson 1994 ) . Payne ( 2000 cited in Barrett et Al, 2005, p.23 ) identifies this as people s capacity to acquire what they want . Power in inter professional collaborative pattern should be shared and distributed and no hierarchy of power should be. If some professionals see themselves as more powerful than another they are non run intoing the demands of the service user. Bei ng territorial and non sharing information and cognition has long been a job in inter professional collaborative pattern. Molyneux ( 2001, cited in Barrett et Al, 2005, p20 ) found that professionals who were confident in their ain function were able to work flexibly across professional boundaries without experiencing covetous or threatened . Professional maturity was an look used by Laidler ( 1991, cited in Barratt et Al, 2005, p.20 ) to depict professionals who were confident in their ain function to portion information and communicate efficaciously with other professionals. These professionals do non experience territorial about releasing their cognition and apprehension to farther enhance good inter professional collaborative pattern. Stapleton ( 1998, cited in Barrett et Al, 2005, p.20 ) suggests that a combination of personal and professional assurance enables persons to asseverate their ain positions and dispute the point of views of others . Open and honest communicating is a critical and likely one of the most of import facets of inter professional collaborative pattern. It requires professionals to take into history each other s positions, be respectful, dignified and to listen to each other without being extremely critical of one another. Constructive unfavorable judgment demands to be undertaken aboard constructive suggestions and encouragement and should take topographic point at a clip when other professionals are receptive. Active hearing is an of import accomplishment. To be able to recognize and react to what is being communicated is a cardinal accomplishment. Professionals working collaboratively should show this verbally and nonverbally to each other. This is greatly helped if all concerned put aside the typical stereotyping of each other s professions in order to hear and listen to what the talker is stating. Keeping good oculus contact and holding good organic structure linguistic communication is merely eve ry bit of import. It is estimated that about two-thirds of communicating is non-verbal, i.e. something is communicated through body linguistic communication by a organic structure motion, a position, an inflexion in the voice ( Birdwhistell, 1970, cited in Wilson, 2008, p.297 ) . A dislocation in communicating and the deficiency of sharing of information between the professions in the yesteryear have been major weaknesss in inter professional collaborative pattern for illustration in high profile kid protection enquiries and this has led to tragic effects. Effective systems of communicating and cognizing what information should be shared are indispensable non merely between the professions but besides between the service users. Trust, common regard and support are cardinal characteristics to bury professional collaborative pattern. Trust was highlighted by many professionals as one of the most of import factors in successful coaction. When trust is absent professionals may experience uncomfortable and insecure in their function and this in bend can take to defensive behavior to antagonize their insecurities. Stapleton ( 1998, cited in Barratt et Al, 2005, p.22 ) suggests that trust develops through repeated positive inter professional experience and develops bit by bit over a period of clip . Trust can non be gained overnight so it is of import for professionals working collaboratively to give one another clip for trust to develop. When professionals feel valued, they feel respected. This can be achieved by actively listening to each other and holding an penetration into one another s professions. Conflict between the professions can hold a immense impact on the different professionals and service users. Loxley ( 1997, cited in Barrett et Al, 2005, p.24 ) suggests that struggle is interwoven with collaborative pattern . To antagonize some of the jobs associated with struggle it may be good to all concerned to organize land regulations. These land regulations could travel some manner to forestall and assist the direction of struggle and could include ; unfastened treatment and the duty to be able to give each other honorable feedback. Most significantly these land regulations need to profit all parties involved. A great trade of accent is placed on societal workers to critically reflect their pattern. It literally means that societal workers reflect on their pattern before, during and after, believing through undertakings carefully. Other professionals may non make this in line with societal workers beliefs of critical contemplation or in the same manner or see that contemplation on their ain pattern is an of import facet of successful inter professional collaborative pattern. To exemplify the above points a pattern illustration will now be explained. The enquiry into the decease of 10 twelvemonth old Victoria Climbie highlights the black effects when communicating in inter professional collaborative pattern fails. This child decease instance was fraught with communicating dislocations across the scope of professionals associated with the instance. In Lord Laming s study ( 2003 ) he draws attending to and illustrates deficiency of communicating as one of the cardinal issues. Victoria Climbie was failed by a system that was put into topographic point to protect her. Professionals failed in this protection by non pass oning with each other or with Victoria herself. One of the unfavorable judgments in the Laming Report ( 2003 ) was that none of the professionals involved in the instance spoke to Victoria about her life or how she was experiencing and suggests that even basic service user engagement was absent. There was an chance which is highlighted in his s tudy that a societal worker missed an chance to pass on with Victoria by make up ones minding non to see or talk to her while she was in infirmary. It could be argued that if basic degrees of communicating with Victoria herself had been implemented, so more could hold been achieved to protect her. It was non merely a deficiency of communicating with Victoria herself but a deficiency of communicating between the professions that were investigated in the Laming Report ( 2003 ) . Communication is every bit of import between the service user and the different professional organic structures. Professionals are less effectual on their clients behalf if they can non pass on exactly and persuasively . ( Clark, 2000, cited in Trevithick, 2009, p.117 ) . For successful inter professional collaborative pattern to work a combination of personal and professional accomplishments are required, together with competent communications accomplishments to enable the different professions to dispute t he positions of others. Recommendation 37 of the Laming Report ( 2003 ) states The preparation of societal workers must fit them with the assurance to oppugn the sentiment of professionals in other bureaus when carry oning their ain appraisal of the demands of the kid . On at least one juncture, this did non go on when a societal worker did non dispute a medical statement which turned out to be professionally wrong which in bend led to the tragic eventual decease of Victoria. Had the societal worker challenged the medical sentiment in this case so it could be argued that more efficient communicating and less confusion in the instance may hold saved Victoria. Alan Milburn ( Hansard 28 January 2003, column 740, cited in Wilson et Al, 2008, p.474 ) , the so Secretary of State commented when presenting the Children Bill in the Commons that Victoria demands services that worked together and that down the old ages inquiry after enquiry has called for better communicating and better co-o rdination . Communication lies at the bosom of high quality and successful inter professional pattern and Victoria is merely one instance of when there is a deficiency of communicating between the professionals and the annihilating effects that can originate. In decision, successful inter professional collaborative pattern has many elements and all these different elements require that the different professions follow them. Although inter professional working pattern has been around for many old ages and is non new, it still needs to be continued, developed and incorporated into the day-to-day work of all professions. When wellness and societal attention professionals from different subjects genuinely understand each other s functions, duties and challenges, the potency of inter professional collaborative pattern could be to the full realised and many of the barriers alleviated, giving a more successful result to the service user.

How to Refer to Governmental Administrative Bodies

How to Refer to Governmental Administrative Bodies How to Refer to Governmental Administrative Bodies How to Refer to Governmental Administrative Bodies By Mark Nichol Nomenclature for US government entities can be complicated. Here are some guidelines about how to style names of administrative jurisdictions, departments, and agencies: Name Versions The formal style for Cabinet-level departments is â€Å"the Department of State,† for example, though journalistic style often up-ends this form as, for instance, â€Å"the State Department.† Informally, a department may simply be called â€Å"State† or â€Å"Interior† or â€Å"Justice.† Some departments are also recognized by their initials (DOJ for â€Å"Department of Justice,† for example), though abbreviations should be used only on second reference (an editing term that actually means â€Å"all subsequent references†), after the name is spelled out the first time it is used. Abbreviated forms of names should be preceded by the (â€Å"the DOJ,† for example), unless the abbreviation is an acronym (pronounced as a word), such as OSHA (the abbreviation for the Occupational Safety and Health Administration), which is pronounced â€Å"oh-shuh,† not â€Å"(the) oh-es-aitch-ay.† Be sure, too, that identification is unambiguous. Two Cabinet-level departments the Department of Education and the Department of Energy can be abbreviated DOE, so if both departments are mentioned in a particular article or book, it’s best not to use the abbreviation. Also, the designation US often precedes a department or agency name to distinguish it from a state-level entity of the same name or a similar foreign entity, whether such an entity is mentioned in the same piece of content or not. (Note that many publications and Web sites continue to use initial periods in US, but the latest edition of The Chicago Manual of Style advises that periods now be omitted from the abbreviation.) When an entity is referred to generically, even if the term is part of the entity’s name, the wording should, by definition, be lowercase: â€Å"the department,† â€Å"the bureau† (for the Federal Bureau of Investigation, for example), â€Å"the postal service† (in reference to the US Postal Service). Entities themselves often capitalize such shorthand, but that doesn’t mean you have to. Name Changes Beware of new nomenclature: The agency long known as the US Immigration and Naturalization Service was dismantled and most of its functions and responsibilities taken up by the newly created agency US Citizenship and Immigration Services in 2003. In nonfiction referring to immigration before that date, this information should be given to inform readers of the distinction; in fiction set before that year, the former agency, not its successor, should be mentioned in references to the US government’s immigration policies. Likewise, what has been known as the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (but is still abbreviated CDC) for twenty years has undergone half a dozen name changes since the Office of National Defense Malaria Control Activities was established in 1942. These are only two examples illustrating that writers should take care to identify government entities according to the historical context in which their articles and books take place. When it comes to identifying government entities, due diligent research to make sure your usage is accurate. Don’t let your writing be merely, as the saying goes, good enough for government work. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Style category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:Spelling Test 160 Synonyms for â€Å"Trip†Double Possessive

Deforestation Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Deforestation - Article Example The limitation of deforestation outweighs its benefits and, therefore, the activity should be stopped at all cost. There are various effects of deforestation that can be witnessed in the world today. Cutting down of trees interferes with the water cycle, causes loss of forest species, results in soil erosion and decreasing the quality of life (Lewellen, 643). Trees tend to hold the soil together and therefore without them, and soil is often carried away by rivers and other water bodies. Accumulation of this land in water bodies causes siltation and reduces their qualities. Less forest cover results to flooding and landslide issues that are all connected to soil erosion. Trees often produce water vapor after absorbing rainwater.  The water vapor is later released to the atmosphere that then forms into clouds that result in rainfall. Additionally, over 70% of animals and plants live in forests. The trend is however changing as a result of continuous destruction of forest land by peop le all over the world. Loss of habitat can lead to extinction of various animal species. Given the many advantages associated that are associated with forests, countries all over the world should come up with strategies that will prevent continuous destruction of tree cover by setting up policies aimed at protecting forest land. Countries that have less forest cover should come up with initiatives that will help restore new tree cover in various parts of the country. Countries around the world should be able to come up with various strategies.

All My Sons by Arthur Miller Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

All My Sons by Arthur Miller - Essay Example This essay will describe how issues of morality and politics affected the main characters, how Miller employed the fundamental elements of drama to create a modern play on par with older Greek tragedies, and some personal observations. As an initial matter, it is important to note that competing political and moral belief systems were instrumental in the development of the main characters. An examination of the father and sons is useful. The father, Joe Keller, was by all accounts a family-oriented man. He loved and provided for his sons. Indeed, as the play demonstrates, Joe believed it to be his highest moral responsibility to take care of and provide material support for his family. Money was important according to his realistic view of the world and of his own role in the world. His sons, Chris and Larry, provide a sharp contrast to the father's philosophical underpinnings. Both are of an idealistic bent. Family, to be sure, is important, but both have deeply ingrained notions of a deeper social obligation to their country and to other individuals in their country. In this case, involving the sale of damaged airplane parts to the United States government, the play was set from the beginning to elicit different and competing responses from the main characters. Joe, as the practical family ma... His sons were Chris and Larry. Other fathers had to worry about their own sons. Chris and Larry, on the other hand, because of their different notions of social obligation and honor, could never accept such a narrowly tailored and self-serving justification. For them, both veterans of WW II, social obligation was a more comprehensive duty which transcended temporary financial windfalls or the isolated survival of an individual family. Sons, from their point of view, might have been defined as American soldiers, as American citizens, or as allies more generally around the world. Because of these broader beliefs in social duty, both were unable to accept their father's complicity in the sale of the damaged parts. Larry committed suicide by crashing his airplane and Chris threatened to abandon his heritage by leaving the factory and his father. In the final analysis, these characters were defined by their views of the world. Their actions and their decisions adhered to these philosophical characterizations and the reader cannot imagine that they could have behaved much differently than Miller scripted them to act. These three are philosophies as much as they are people. 1.2 How Miller Used the Elements of Drama to Effectively Emphasize his Themes This play is nothing if not a tragedy. It is tragic because well-intentioned people suffered tragic fates. Miller highlighted this feeling of tragedy by creating and adhering to a dramatic structure which created both a feeling of empathy and a feeling of disgust. There was empathy for individuals and disgust for certain actions; more particularly, the dramatic structure employed by Miller vested the main characters with believable motivations and their consequent actions with realistic results. The

Matisse and Munch Essay Example for Free

Matisse and Munch Essay The Dance – Henri Matisse, (1909), oil on canvas. This painting was commissioned in 1909 by Sergei Shchukin for decorative purposes (MoMa). The painting comprises five nudes dancing in a circle that is reminiscent of ancient pagan practices. Dance of Life – Edvard Munch, (1899), oil on canvas. This painting was comprises of what can be described as a ‘cyclic view of life’ whereby â€Å"We repeat ourselves like crystals that are dissolved and then recrystallise again† (Munch in Humanities Web). This piece is a highly symbolic picture of life and death and the union of souls while Matisse invokes the somewhat basic nature of humanity right down to its drives and instincts. Munch was particularly concerned with the various ways in which you see the same thing, depending on mood and time of day. â€Å"The fact is that at different times you see with different eyes.† (Munch in Eggum). Matisse prized himself on a mature compilation of color and line that was not close to the morbid fascination with death that Munch had. In the two paintings there is a distinct two dimensionality that is curiously juxtaposed to a somewhat well-arranged subject matter. Matisse and Munch both use the same vivid color but Munch has a much more diverse palette in this case. Matisse appears to be sampling the primitive nature of life that is shown by the nudity of the subjects as well as the circular composition of subjects that is reminiscent of baroque artists such as Rubens. Munch uses color to denote the presence of life on the left hand side (white) and death (black) in the clothing of the woman on the right. In between is a fire-red dress that symbolises the unity of the man and the woman. Munch creates a heavy background full of circling people while in Matisse there is no background except for a horizon line created by green paint. The background in Munch’s painting shows the people becoming smaller in an attempt to give the impression of depth in an otherwise flat picture. References: Eggum, Arne. Edvard Munch as a Painter. Munch Museet, 2009. http://www.munch.museum.no/content.aspx?id=15mid=lang=en Humanities Web. The Dance of Life. 2009. http://www.humanitiesweb.org/human.php?s=gp=ca=pID=480 MoMa. Henri Matisse – Gallery label text. 2006. http://www.moma.org/collection/browse_results.php?object_id=79124

Essay on Camus’ The Stranger (The Outsider): Finding a Rational God th

Finding a Rational God through Nature in Camus' The Stranger (The Outsider)    Turning towards nature for fulfillment, The Stranger’s Meursault rejects the ideology of God as a savior and is consequently juxtaposed against Jesus Christ’s martyrdom, Christianity and the infamous crucifixion. To the inexperienced reader, Meursault appears to be an extreme atheist. Later in Albert Camus’ novel, he is revealed as a humanistic soul that’s in touch with the universality of the earth and soil he treads upon. Through the use of blunt and undefined nature images, Meursault’s revelations and newfound trust within an environment outside of society are softly whispered by Camus. In essence, Meursault imposes his need for meaning upon nature as well as upon a God who rejects him. Through this imposition, he hopes to acquire an immortality which is similar to a Christian afterlife. The arguments of nature as a religion and as an entity separate from God are jointly focused upon in the modern criticisms and interpretations of The Stran ger I will discuss. Pantheism, a quasi-religious worship of nature, comes into mind when looking at Meursault’s final communion with the world. Is pantheism a mere excuse for Meursault’s actions or rather a secret reality of his which the public is not ready to confront or understand? Icons and stereotypes accompany this enigmatic, suggestive natural imagery and are employed by Camus to show the irrationality in both society’s and Meursault’s assumptions of religion and of Christianity. One is left with the question of Meursault’s acceptance of death; is Meursault’s embracing of his fate representative of his fall into the abyss of traditional Christian faith or indeed a turn towards a happy medium in nature?... ...thood Without God.† In Mansions of the Spirit. Ed. George A. Panichas. New York: Hawthorn Books, Inc. Publishers, 1967. 313-324. Hanna, Thomas L. â€Å"Albert Camus and the Christian Faith.† In Camus: A Collection of Critical Essays. edited by Germaine Bree. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1962. 48-64. Harrison, Paul. â€Å"Scientific Pantheism: Basic Principles.† Elements of Pantheism. [cited from April 20 1999]. Availible from http://members.aol.com/heraklit1/basicpri.htm Peyre, Henri. â€Å"Camus the Pagan.† In Camus: A Collection of Critical Essays. edited by Germaine Bree. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1962. 65-70. Piper, H.W. The Active Universe. London: The Athlone Press 1962. Sprintzen, David. Camus: A Critical Examination. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1988. Woelfel, James W. Camus: A Theological Perspective. New York: Abingdon Press, 1975.      

Mendel Paper Company Essay

According to the text, a break-even point can be computed for any assumed mix of sales and a break-even chart or P/V graph can be constructed for any sales mix (2012). For (a) – the Break even= Contribution Margin from the original estimates is $1,013,000 and for (b) – the Margin of Safety, take the grand total sales number of all items and the total contribution margin and subtract it: $1,013,000 – 2,480,000 = $1,467,000 and to get the percentage, take the total from the subtracted formula ($1,467,000) and divide it by the grand sales total (2,480,000) = $1,467,000/2,480,000 = 59.15%. Revised Estimates – Break-even/Margin of Safety (4) For (a) – the Break even= Contribution Margin from the original estimates is $992,500 and for (b) – the Margin of Safety, take the grand total sales number of all items and the total contribution margin and subtract it: $992,500 – 2,550,000 = $1,557,500 and to get the percentage, take the total from the subtracted formula ($1,557,500) and divide it by the grand sales total (2,550,000) = $1,557,500/2,550,000 = 61.08%. Herbert’s Concern – (5) Herbert should not be concern about the place mats because the contribution margin is the second highest of the four products and the highest contribution margin per unit of the four products. Granted if the place mats were to be closed, it would reduce the profit of the company, but from the original estimates and the revised estimates, the place mats are generating contribution margin. In regards to the variable cost, it is below the selling price, but the place mats should not be discontinued. Conclusion Herbert from Mendel Paper Company should not be concern about the place mats, the data is there to help Herbert realize that that the place mats bring in profit than making the company lose profit, especially with it being the second highest CM. A company should not discontinue an item if the item is making the company some type of product, but if there are other variables involved such as updated machinery that requires more time and energy that costs the company more money, than the company should look at the things that are not doing as well and that does not have a high demand for. References Managerial accounting: Decision making for the service and manufacturing sectors. (2012). San Diego, CA: Bridgepoint Education.

Colonial Unity

Jayla Reese 1 September 2012 3 Essay 2: Colonial Unity (1755-1774) Beginning in 1754, the evolution of colonial unity experienced its jump start with the event of the French and Indian War in America. In entering this war, the French were doing fairly well; they’d just ensured the surrendering of George Washington and Virginian troops as well as the Native Americans that were helping them. The French and Indian had also begun attacking the settlements of Pennsylvania, North Carolina, and South Carolina.After a breakdown in French leadership, however, the tables suddenly turned in favor of the Americans, with the help of the British, who successfully claimed victory in 1763. The great victory and power of the British Empire led to conflicts that would ultimately ruin the relationship between the British and the American colonists shortly after. As a result of the incapability to administer the colonies and territories of North America, the British began enforcing harsh restrict ions and taxes, which directly affected the colonists.The Stamp Act was a major one of many, passed in 1765, that taxed the colonists for legal documents including newspapers and publications. This sparked outrage in the colonists, and also acts that would ultimately begin to strengthen the colonies. Referring back to the French and Indian war, the Albany Congress was configured during the same year, June of 1754. Seven representatives, one from each colony, met in Albany, New York, with the intent to discuss the Albany Plan of Union.The purpose of this plan, created by Benjamin Franklin, was to discuss persuading the Iroquois to aid them in fighting the French, and to also group the colonies into one alliance. Unfortunately, the plan failed due to the rejection in which none of the legislatures present during the meeting decided to ratify it. Although the Albany Congress proved to be unsuccessful in unifying the American colonies, future attempts were made by the Stamp Act Congress , and the First Continental Congress as the British and American colonies ontinued to debate the issue of taxes. The Stamp Act Congress, which included delegates of nine colonies, met in October of 1765 in regards to the Stamp Act. The Stamp Act Congress was not an immediate success, but in the end, all but one legislature approved the plan known as the Stamp Act Resolves. The famous saying â€Å"No taxation without representation! † has been known to have derived from this action. Events following this colonial effort would later include American boycotts and movements against the British rule.The Boston Massacre, occurring on March 5, 1770, which resulted in the death of five men, and also the Boston Tea Party on December 16, 1773 in which Bostonians destroyed a shipload of tea, were two major occurrences that showed the strong American resistance to the British. Another meeting, held by twelve colonies, would establish the committees of correspondence due to the threats ma de my British to trial Americans in England, and would further show the growth of unity building among the colonies.Pleased with the decisions and organization shown during the meeting of the Stamp Act Congress, the colonies decided to meet again from September 5 to October 26 in 1774 sending their delegates to Philadelphia. The First Continental Congress, as they were called, met in response to the Coercive Acts passed in favor of British authority. All colonies except Georgia were present, and the delegates all strongly agreed that Coercive Acts were unconstitutional. However, the representatives still thought only in ways to benefit their individual colonies.This led to the division of the colonies and eventually some of the colonists were against boycotting British trade (Continental Association) and other colonies agreed with this gesture. Although the colonies essentially worked together as a whole for some matters, the unity displayed between them wasn’t the greatest. The colonies would later, during 1774 and 1775, split into the Whigs and Tories, in which the Whigs were anti-British rule, and the Tories supported the British. However, the British were primarily the main purpose for the colonies to take a stance, thus causing the colonists to bond together despite their differences.

Analysis of Simple Stimulus Learning

Analysis of Simple Stimulus Learning Introduction Learning is a lifetime process that takes place throughout the lifetime of a person. It happens from birth and a person begins to learn different things that constitute his/her environment (Terry, 2009). Stimulus learning can therefore be defined as the permanent change in a behavior of an individual after undergoing certain experiences (Terry, 2009).Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Analysis of Simple Stimulus Learning specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The learner in this case implements what he/she has learned through a change in behavior. Generally, learning is a permanent change in behavior as a result of exposure to a stimulus. The experience that results to a certain behavior in an individual is referred to as a stimulus. There are different types of stimuli that result to a change of behavior. Some are simple such as conditioning and habituation while others are quite complex. Simple stimul us learning can therefore be defined as a change in behavior as a result of the presence of a mild stimulus (Terry, 2009). The concept of habituation The learning process takes place from birth to the time when a person dies. Most of the learning happens through the process of habituation. As a person grows up, he/she is continually introduced to changes in the environment and consequently new stimuli are introduced too (Poggi Fahle, 2002). A person gets used to the previous stimuli after it occurs repeatedly and it no longer causes any change in behavior or learning. Habituation is defined as the reduction in response to a stimulus after it has been presented for some time. This means that when an individual becomes used to a certain stimulus, it triggers no change in behavior and there is no more learning. Although people prefer to learn from familiar stimulus, when its presence is repeated for a long time there is no more learning (Poggi Fahle, 2002). It is therefore important to keep changing the stimulus during the process of learning to facilitate effective learning. The process of habituation enables an individual to accustom to a new stimulus and as time passes there is no response to it (Terry, 2009). For instance, if a person gets a job in an airport where airplanes make a lot of noise when landing or taking off, he /she will be disturbed during the first days but after some time he/she will get used to the noise and will no longer be bothered by the noise o.Advertising Looking for research paper on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More This fading of the stimulus (noise in this case) is called habituation. In other words the person learns to get used to the loud noise at the airport as it is reflected in the change of behavior. Research conducted on the learning processes show that habituation is the simplest form of knowledge that is achieved after repeated exposure to a sti mulus (Mishra, 2008). Factors that affect Perceptual Learning Perceptual learning refers to the form learning or change in behavior that arise as a result of experiencing or doing something for several times. Unlike stimulus learning whereby learning or change in behavior is as a result of the presence of a stimulus, perceptual learning involves the recognition of a stimulus that you have seen before (Poggi Fahle, 2002). In this form of learning the learner has to recognize situations and objects and make changes in the sensory system of the brain. The following are the factors that affect perceptual learning: Presenting a contrasting stimulus- during perceptual learning, there is need to have both positive and negative stimuli. When only one dimension of a stimulus is present, the learning process is delayed. However, when both positive and negative dimensions are present, a learner is able to detect the difference between one stimulus and another, and respond to the most positiv e one. This result to a better learning or change in the behavior of the learner (Terry, 2009). Replacing an easy stimulus with a more difficult one- in perceptual learning, an experience of an easy situation enables an individual to learn more difficult situations. Therefore exposing a subject to an easy stimulus then to a difficult one facilitates learning while starting with a difficult one then a simpler one hinders learning (Columbus, 2003). Attention and feedback- perceptual learning normally occurs without the need for feedback about the learning process and performance. If a learner is required to give feedback after the learning, then perceptual learning is affected negatively. Effects of Stimulus Exposure During the learning process persons develop preference to a certain stimulus. However, too much exposure to the stimuli sometimes makes preference to the stimuli to fade (Columbus, 2003). Consequently, the learner does not respond to the stimulus anymore and the learning process stops. Generally, stimulus exposure inhibits learning if there is no stimulus replacement. When a series of stimuli are presented to a learner repeatedly, he/she is able to recognize the stimuli that have been there before of that he/she is familiar with (Columbus, 2003). In the real life situation, a good example of simple stimulus learning is the dressing process. Once the stimulus is sent to the brain that a person is naked, the person responds by wearing clothes. After staying with clothes for some time, there is no more response to their presence.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Analysis of Simple Stimulus Learning specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More References Columbus, F.H., (2003). Advances in Psychology Research, Volume 21. Carbondale, IL: Nova Publishers Mishra, T., (2008). Psychology: A Study of Human Behavior. New Delhi, India PHI: Learning Pvt. Ltd Poggi, T., Fahle, M., (2002). Perceptual Learning. Massachusetts, MA: MIT Press Terry, W.S., (2009). Learning and memory: Basic principles, processes, and procedures edition 4. Boston: Pearson/Allyn Bacon.

Alcohol Use Disorder

Diagnosis The DSM-IV-TR classifies drug disorders into substance use disorders (substance dependence and abuse) and substance-induced disorders (substance intoxication, substance withdrawal, induced delirium, anxiety, depression, psychosis and mood disorders). Sometimes it is difficult assessing patient’s psychiatric complaints because heavy drinking is associated with alcoholism can co-exist with, contribute to or result from several different psychiatric syndromes. (Shivani, Goldsmith Anthenelli, 2002) In order to improve diagnostic accuracy, distinguishes among alcohol-related psychiatric symptoms and signs, alcohol-induced psychiatric syndromes and independent psychiatric disorders that are commonly associated with alcoholism emerges to be essential. Patients’ gender, family history, and course of illness over time also should be taken into account. Alcohol-related psychiatric symptoms and signs Heavy alcohol consumption directly affects brain function and brain chemical and hormonal systems known to be involved in many common mental disorders thus can manifest itself in a broad range of psychiatric symptoms and signs. (Koob, 2000) And this usually the first problem which brings the patients seek help. The symptoms vary depending on the amount of alcohol used, how long it is used and how recently it was used as well as patient’s vulnerability to experiencing psychiatric symptoms in the setting of consumption. For example, during intoxication, smaller amount alcohol may produce euphoria whereas larger amount may produce more dramatic changes in mood. Alcohol also impairs judgment and aggressive, antisocial behaviours that may mimic certain externalizing disorders such as ASPD. Alcohol-induced psychiatric syndromes The essential feature of alcohol-induced psychiatric syndromes is the presence of prominent and persistent symptoms, which are judged- based on their onset and course as well as on the patient’s history, physical exam, and laboratory findings to be the result of the direct physiological effects of alcohol. Given the broad range of effects of heavy drinking may have on psychological functioning, these alcohol-induced disorders span several categories of mental disorders, including mood, anxiety, psychotic, sleep, sexual, delirious, amnestic and dementia disorders. Alcoholism with comorbid, independent psychiatric disorders Alcoholism is also associated with several psychiatric disorders that develop independently of the alcoholism and may precede alcohol use and abuse. One of the most common of these comorbid conditions is ASPD, and axis II personality disorder marked by a longstanding pattern of irresponsibility and violating the rights of others with alcohol. (Stinson et al. , 2006) Assessment The three major purposes for a comprehensive assessment are to determine a diagnosis, devise a treatment plan and to make appropriate referrals. The assessment should provide a clinical picture of the client’s personal level of functioning, history, presenting problems, family and social context in the client’s life. It is very important that the assessment process requires the gathering of comprehensive, accurate information, for a valid diagnosis and appropriate treatment. – It is vital that the counsellor needs to collect valid and reliable information. Both formal diagnosis, as listed in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (APA, 1994) and informal diagnosis, if the client has had therapy in the past can be made. – Comprehensive assessment is essential in designing a treatment plan. The more information provided concerning the etiology, functioning level and prognosis of the problem, the better the treatment plan. – Comprehensive assessment also provides information in order to made appropriate referral. The counsellor may decide to provide treatment solely or in conjunction with some other drug treatment specialists. Generally there are three categories of assessment measures: subjective data and physiological data. -Subjective data To collect information of demographics, family and living situations, mployment, education, drinking history (including development of the drinking problem and current drinking) and the effects on the subject’s cognitive, psychosocial, behavioural and physiological functioning. (Aalto Seppa, 2005) For example, some questionnaires focus on problems caused by alcohol consumption, the Alcohol Use Disorder Identification Test (AUDIT) (Saunders, Aasland, Babor, de le Fuente, Grant, 1993) There are ones with diaries focussing on the quantification of alcohol consumption, such as quantity-frequency, time-period or time-line follow-back methods. Webb et al. , 1990) More recently, a low level of response (LR) to alcohol (the need for higher amounts to have an effect) is a genetically influenced characteristic that is both found in populations at high risk for future alcoholism and that predicts alcohol related life problems in future. This Self-Rating of the Effects of Alcohol (SRE) questionnaire asks for estimate of number of drinks required to produce each of four effects at different times in their lives. Miller, Thomas, Mallin, 2006) In addition, the survey included the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test-C (AUDIT-C), a three-question alcohol screening test adapted from the original AUDIT developed by the World Health Organization for use in primary health care. The AUDIT-C is a simple, reliable screening tool that focuses on the frequency of drinking, quantify consumed on the typical occasion and the frequency of heavy episode drinking. (Bush, Kivlahan, McDonnell, al. , 1998) Again, there is no such perfect measure that SRE was found to be biased and not able to identify high functioning middle-age women. Schuckit, Smith, Danko, Isacescu, 2003) The difficulty with these specific questionnaires is that people who drink alcohol in general tend to neglect or underestimate their alcohol consumption. (Koch et al. , 2004) The accuracy of these measures is based on the patient’s awareness of and willingness to acknowledge his or her pattern and level of alcohol use as well as negative effects of drinking. At least some individuals who drink excessively will fail to do this. (Allen Litten, 2001) – Physiological data Comparing to subjective data, physiological data can overcome the subjectivity, underestimation in particular thus provides more precise and objective information about the drinking issue. It includes general medical and psychiatric history and examination. This is conducted through screening of blood, breath or urine for alcohol used, further on laboratory tests for abnormalities that may be accompanied acute or chronic alcohol use such as gamma-glutamy-transferase (GGT) or mean corpuscular volume (MCV), a measure of the average size of red blood cells. These may also be used during treatment for potential relapse. GGT is the most commonly used biochemical measure of drinking. However, it is not clear how much drinking is actually needed to cause GGT levels to elevate. And MCV tends to miss more alcoholics than GGT as MCV may be elevated by a variety of conditions other than heavy drinking such as non-alcoholic liver disease, smoking, advanced age or use of anticonvulsants etc. Thus applying the usual cut-off points for these tests, GGT turns out to have a low specificity whereas MCV shows a low sensitivity. This may lead to a gross misunderstanding with the patient and unnecessary further testing. Carbohydrate deficient transferring (CDT) has been recently approved as a marker for identification of individuals with alcohol problems as well as an aid in recognizing if alcoholic patients in treatment have relapsed. CDT and GGT appear to validly detect somewhat different groups of people with alcohol problems. GGT may best pick up those with liver damage due to drinking, whereas CDT seems to be related to level of consumption with or without liver damage. It should be kept in mind that biomarkers do not identify women or adolescents with alcohol problems as they do for male or adults in general. (Similarly, self-report screening tests are also generally less able to detect alcohol problems) (Allen Litten, 2001) Previous studies showed that over 80% of internists and family clinicians report that they usually or always ask new outpatients whether they drink alcohol. Less than 20% of primary care physicians routinely use validated self-report alcohol screening instruments (e. g. CAGE questions or AUDIT) Fewer than half ask about maximum alcohol consumption on one occasion. Alcohol biomarker laboratory tests are rarely used. Reasons given by clinicians for not following recommended alcohol screening guidelines range from lack of time, to insufficient knowledge and skills, to pessimistic attitudes about the ultimate benefits of screening. A current study conducted by Miller, et al. , (2004), they found that approximately 60% of clinicians surveyed frequently screen patients for alcohol use with quantity/frequency and CAGE questions. This is comparable to the incidence of screening found in previous studies. (Miller, Ornstein, Nietert, Anton, 2004)Miller, et al. 2006) further found that over 90% of patients were in favour of screening and guidance about alcohol use and very positive about the use of biological alcohol markers. These findings suggest that physicians and clinicians may be convinced that patients are open to alcohol screening and would not be offended by it. Heavy drinkers may have more of a tendency to be embarrassed by such questions but there is no evidence they would be object to screening. The majority of patients would also be willing to receive alcohol biomarker blood tests, if their physicians and clinicians deemed such tests necessary. Alcohol Use Disorder Diagnosis The DSM-IV-TR classifies drug disorders into substance use disorders (substance dependence and abuse) and substance-induced disorders (substance intoxication, substance withdrawal, induced delirium, anxiety, depression, psychosis and mood disorders). Sometimes it is difficult assessing patient’s psychiatric complaints because heavy drinking is associated with alcoholism can co-exist with, contribute to or result from several different psychiatric syndromes. (Shivani, Goldsmith Anthenelli, 2002) In order to improve diagnostic accuracy, distinguishes among alcohol-related psychiatric symptoms and signs, alcohol-induced psychiatric syndromes and independent psychiatric disorders that are commonly associated with alcoholism emerges to be essential. Patients’ gender, family history, and course of illness over time also should be taken into account. Alcohol-related psychiatric symptoms and signs Heavy alcohol consumption directly affects brain function and brain chemical and hormonal systems known to be involved in many common mental disorders thus can manifest itself in a broad range of psychiatric symptoms and signs. (Koob, 2000) And this usually the first problem which brings the patients seek help. The symptoms vary depending on the amount of alcohol used, how long it is used and how recently it was used as well as patient’s vulnerability to experiencing psychiatric symptoms in the setting of consumption. For example, during intoxication, smaller amount alcohol may produce euphoria whereas larger amount may produce more dramatic changes in mood. Alcohol also impairs judgment and aggressive, antisocial behaviours that may mimic certain externalizing disorders such as ASPD. Alcohol-induced psychiatric syndromes The essential feature of alcohol-induced psychiatric syndromes is the presence of prominent and persistent symptoms, which are judged- based on their onset and course as well as on the patient’s history, physical exam, and laboratory findings to be the result of the direct physiological effects of alcohol. Given the broad range of effects of heavy drinking may have on psychological functioning, these alcohol-induced disorders span several categories of mental disorders, including mood, anxiety, psychotic, sleep, sexual, delirious, amnestic and dementia disorders. Alcoholism with comorbid, independent psychiatric disorders Alcoholism is also associated with several psychiatric disorders that develop independently of the alcoholism and may precede alcohol use and abuse. One of the most common of these comorbid conditions is ASPD, and axis II personality disorder marked by a longstanding pattern of irresponsibility and violating the rights of others with alcohol. (Stinson et al. , 2006) Assessment The three major purposes for a comprehensive assessment are to determine a diagnosis, devise a treatment plan and to make appropriate referrals. The assessment should provide a clinical picture of the client’s personal level of functioning, history, presenting problems, family and social context in the client’s life. It is very important that the assessment process requires the gathering of comprehensive, accurate information, for a valid diagnosis and appropriate treatment. – It is vital that the counsellor needs to collect valid and reliable information. Both formal diagnosis, as listed in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (APA, 1994) and informal diagnosis, if the client has had therapy in the past can be made. – Comprehensive assessment is essential in designing a treatment plan. The more information provided concerning the etiology, functioning level and prognosis of the problem, the better the treatment plan. – Comprehensive assessment also provides information in order to made appropriate referral. The counsellor may decide to provide treatment solely or in conjunction with some other drug treatment specialists. Generally there are three categories of assessment measures: subjective data and physiological data. -Subjective data To collect information of demographics, family and living situations, mployment, education, drinking history (including development of the drinking problem and current drinking) and the effects on the subject’s cognitive, psychosocial, behavioural and physiological functioning. (Aalto Seppa, 2005) For example, some questionnaires focus on problems caused by alcohol consumption, the Alcohol Use Disorder Identification Test (AUDIT) (Saunders, Aasland, Babor, de le Fuente, Grant, 1993) There are ones with diaries focussing on the quantification of alcohol consumption, such as quantity-frequency, time-period or time-line follow-back methods. Webb et al. , 1990) More recently, a low level of response (LR) to alcohol (the need for higher amounts to have an effect) is a genetically influenced characteristic that is both found in populations at high risk for future alcoholism and that predicts alcohol related life problems in future. This Self-Rating of the Effects of Alcohol (SRE) questionnaire asks for estimate of number of drinks required to produce each of four effects at different times in their lives. Miller, Thomas, Mallin, 2006) In addition, the survey included the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test-C (AUDIT-C), a three-question alcohol screening test adapted from the original AUDIT developed by the World Health Organization for use in primary health care. The AUDIT-C is a simple, reliable screening tool that focuses on the frequency of drinking, quantify consumed on the typical occasion and the frequency of heavy episode drinking. (Bush, Kivlahan, McDonnell, al. , 1998) Again, there is no such perfect measure that SRE was found to be biased and not able to identify high functioning middle-age women. Schuckit, Smith, Danko, Isacescu, 2003) The difficulty with these specific questionnaires is that people who drink alcohol in general tend to neglect or underestimate their alcohol consumption. (Koch et al. , 2004) The accuracy of these measures is based on the patient’s awareness of and willingness to acknowledge his or her pattern and level of alcohol use as well as negative effects of drinking. At least some individuals who drink excessively will fail to do this. (Allen Litten, 2001) – Physiological data Comparing to subjective data, physiological data can overcome the subjectivity, underestimation in particular thus provides more precise and objective information about the drinking issue. It includes general medical and psychiatric history and examination. This is conducted through screening of blood, breath or urine for alcohol used, further on laboratory tests for abnormalities that may be accompanied acute or chronic alcohol use such as gamma-glutamy-transferase (GGT) or mean corpuscular volume (MCV), a measure of the average size of red blood cells. These may also be used during treatment for potential relapse. GGT is the most commonly used biochemical measure of drinking. However, it is not clear how much drinking is actually needed to cause GGT levels to elevate. And MCV tends to miss more alcoholics than GGT as MCV may be elevated by a variety of conditions other than heavy drinking such as non-alcoholic liver disease, smoking, advanced age or use of anticonvulsants etc. Thus applying the usual cut-off points for these tests, GGT turns out to have a low specificity whereas MCV shows a low sensitivity. This may lead to a gross misunderstanding with the patient and unnecessary further testing. Carbohydrate deficient transferring (CDT) has been recently approved as a marker for identification of individuals with alcohol problems as well as an aid in recognizing if alcoholic patients in treatment have relapsed. CDT and GGT appear to validly detect somewhat different groups of people with alcohol problems. GGT may best pick up those with liver damage due to drinking, whereas CDT seems to be related to level of consumption with or without liver damage. It should be kept in mind that biomarkers do not identify women or adolescents with alcohol problems as they do for male or adults in general. (Similarly, self-report screening tests are also generally less able to detect alcohol problems) (Allen Litten, 2001) Previous studies showed that over 80% of internists and family clinicians report that they usually or always ask new outpatients whether they drink alcohol. Less than 20% of primary care physicians routinely use validated self-report alcohol screening instruments (e. g. CAGE questions or AUDIT) Fewer than half ask about maximum alcohol consumption on one occasion. Alcohol biomarker laboratory tests are rarely used. Reasons given by clinicians for not following recommended alcohol screening guidelines range from lack of time, to insufficient knowledge and skills, to pessimistic attitudes about the ultimate benefits of screening. A current study conducted by Miller, et al. , (2004), they found that approximately 60% of clinicians surveyed frequently screen patients for alcohol use with quantity/frequency and CAGE questions. This is comparable to the incidence of screening found in previous studies. (Miller, Ornstein, Nietert, Anton, 2004)Miller, et al. 2006) further found that over 90% of patients were in favour of screening and guidance about alcohol use and very positive about the use of biological alcohol markers. These findings suggest that physicians and clinicians may be convinced that patients are open to alcohol screening and would not be offended by it. Heavy drinkers may have more of a tendency to be embarrassed by such questions but there is no evidence they would be object to screening. The majority of patients would also be willing to receive alcohol biomarker blood tests, if their physicians and clinicians deemed such tests necessary.

Italian Renaissance Artists Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Italian Renaissance Artists - Term Paper Example It was a movement and an era of awakening that turned from the darkness and stagnation of the middle ages and laid the basis for Western civilization up to the present. The flowering of art during the Renaissance is what it is most remembered for today. Hence, the paintings and sculptures and their creators can be seen as springboards for discussing some fundamental changes in attitude – especially how art evidences new attitudes toward man, his place in the world, and his relationship to God. (Osmond, 1998, p.18) This essay will talk about Italian artists – the likes of Da Vinci, Michelangelo, Raphael, Bellini, etc - who played pivotal roles in this great chapter in European history. During the era of the early Renaissance, evolving modes of representation and choice of content led to a redefinition of painting and sculpture as liberal arts. It can even be said that visual  artists themselves played a role in modifying the perception of their profession and art. In o ther words, artists both helped to shape and to react to an essential change in their status from craftsman to creator. This can be learnt from the broad ranging â€Å"written and visual evidence, including treatises, contracts, letters, financial records, and, perhaps most interesting, the works of art themselves. That many of the most successful early  Renaissance artists  evinced a significant interest in intellectual and social issues is demonstrated in a number of different areas, including changes in artistic training; the involvement of  artists in civic life; their engagement in the study of antiquity and antique art;  artists pursuit of the literary arts, including poetry, autobiography, and theory; and their participation in the paragone debate.† (Rosenberg, 2001, p.937) There was also a shift in the power relationship between patron and artist in favor of the latter, a shift ushered in by the emergence of the social value of artistic renown. The impact of t his phenomenon is best illustrated in the â€Å"difficulties which Isabella d'Este, the Marchioness of Mantua, experienced as she went about negotiating with some of Italy's "best  artists" -- Bellini, Mantegna, Perugino, and Leonardo -- for paintings for her famous studiolo†. (Rosenberg, 2001, p.937) Likewise, artists such as Giovanna Garzoni, Bartolomeo Bimbi, Jacopo Ligozzi, etc â€Å"brought to their subjects not only a masterly technique, but a freshness and originality of style that would have a lasting influence on botanical illustration and the art of naturalistic painting.† (Hirschauer, 2002, p.62) The cartoons made by them are â€Å"full-scale drawings characterized by extended passages of careful modeling and chiaroscuro, became collectible objects valued for their intrinsic aesthetic qualities. Raphael's cartoon (Ambrosiana Gallery, Milan) for the School of Athens is the largest and perhaps best known example of this category of drawing. Because the tran sfer process often led to the destruction of a cartoon, artists introduced another intermediate step, the "substitute cartoon," as a means of preserving workshop model drawings and of keeping the ben finito cartone intact† (Fletcher, 2000, p.347) Towering above the achievements of other artists are the masterly works of Michelangelo,